What do visual hallucinations tell us about the nature of consciousness Essay Example for Free

What do visual hallucinations tell us about the nature of consciousness Essay The term ‘hallucination’ is difficult to define. There is a fine line between a ‘hallucination’ and an ‘illusion’. A hallucination differs from an illusion in that illusions are a product of misinterpretations of external stimuli whereas hallucinations need no such requirement making them an entirely internal process. A true hallucination can also be distinguished from a pseudo-hallucination in which the individual can recognise that what they’re seeing or hearing is not real. Hallucinations are also different from voluntary mental imagery, in that the thought has not uncontrollably forced itself onto our minds. Slade and Bentall (1988, cited in Blackmore, 2010) provided a working definition of a hallucination: â€Å"Any percept-like experience which (a) occurs in the absence of an appropriate stimulus, (b) has the full force or impact of the corresponding actual (real) perception, and (c) is not amenable to direct and voluntary control by the experiencer.† Hallucinations are frequently associated with schizophrenia. In result, those who hallucinate hesitate to come forward due to fear of being labeled crazy. The Society for Psychical Research’s ‘Census of Hallucinations’ is one of the first attempts to study hallucinations in the general population. 1684 people from 17,000 said they had previously suffered from a hallucination. It was found that visual hallucinations were more common than auditory hallucinations, and hallucinations where generally more common in females, with the most common type being a vision of a person (Blackmore, 2010). One general model of hallucinations is the ‘neurophysiological dissociation’ theory proposed by Marrazzi (1962, as cited in Slade 1976). He found that LSD produced inhibition of the association areas without affecting the primary visual cortex. He proposed that hallucinogenic drugs have their effect by producing a functional dissociation between the receiving cortex and the association areas. This loss of control of the latter over the former is responsible for the hallucinatory experience. A similar theory to Marrazzi is the ‘perceptual release’ theory, which was first proposed by Hughlings Jackson who believed that hallucinations were a result of loss of control of one area of the brain over the rest. More generally, he argues  that memories and internally generated images are naturally inhibited by information from the senses, and so such information is released when the sensory input is disrupted. Such a process tends to happen to people who indulge in sensory deprivation tanks, or to blind or deaf people. West (1962, as cited in Slade 1976) further developed the perceptual release theory to account for a whole range of percept like experiences, including hallucinations. The central beliefs of West’s theory is first, percept-like experiences are based on neural traces, templates, or engrams which are the permanent record of memories in the brain, secondly these templates/engrams are woven into the basic material of fantasies, dreams and hallucinations, and lastly, this reorganised experience is prevented from emerging into consciousness by the presence of external sensory input. The release of the reorganised experience can occur when there is sufficient arousal to permit awareness, combined with impairment of a sensory input. The perceptual release theory differs from Marrazzi’s theory in two main ways. Firstly, perceptual release theory, in placing arousal level as a central concept, assumes that subcortical structures play an important role, whereas Marrazzi’s t heory limits the area of dysfunction to structures within the cortex itself. Secondly, the perceptual release theory emphasises the disequilibrium between external sensory input and internal input from within, whereas Marrazzi does not (Slade, 1976). The perceptual release theory places strong emphasis on external sensory input, which has been supported through research demonstrating that interruption of the senses induces hallucinatory experiences. The best way to induce hallucinations, or where they occur the most, is through sensory deprivation. Charles Bonnet Syndrome (CBS) is a common condition among people who have lost their sight in which they suffer visual hallucinations. Many studies have looked at the syndrome in order to provide a better understanding of visual hallucinations. One study exhibited a 64-year-old blind woman suffering from complex visual hallucinations (McNamara, Heros, Boller, 1982). It was found that neurosurgical removal of a large suprasellar meningioma helped remove her hallucinatory experiences. Such a case study provides evidence that hallucinations are related to both a  sensory deprivation and an impairment in CNS functioning. Another study claimed that, through looking at patients suffering f rom CBS, the hallucinations were due to an interruption in the visual association areas of the cerebral cortex. The researchers suggested that hallucinatory experiences could terminate on improving visual function or addressing social isolation (Menon, Rahman, Menon, Dutton, 2003). Deprivation of hearing can also induce hallucinations. Sometimes the deaf hear hallucinated sounds – they may even hear whole orchestras playing. Various case studies have demonstrated such a claim. Miller and Crosby (1979) found an 89-year-old woman experiencing the onset of musical hallucinations with longstanding progressive hearing loss. These hallucinations were well-formed perceptions of religious hymns and were nearly constant. Another study of a 52-year-old man proposed that the cause of musical hallucinations where due to progressive hearing loss and a result of sensory deprivation (Raghuram, Keshacan, Channabsavanna, 1980). Berrios (1990), through looking at a sample of 46 subjects experiencing musical hallucination, concluded that musical hallucinations were more common in females, and age and deafness seemed to play an important role in their development. Studies looking at CBS or hearing loss are consistent with the claim that hallucinations can occur as a result of an interruption in sensory input. However, studies have also addressed possible consistencies between hallucinations. There is no limit to the variety of hallucinations, although some common features have been identified suggesting a consistency that reflects underlying sensory processes. Such common features include spirals, concentric patterns, wavy lines, and bright colours. These similarities were investigated through studying the effects of mescaline, a hallucinogenic drug (Kluver 1926, as cited in Blackmore, 2010). It was found that brightly coloured images occurred, with a tendency to take on four forms. The first was gratings and lattices, the second was tunnels, funnels and cones, the third was spirals, and the fourth was cobwebs. These forms seem to be evident in hallucinations caused by drugs, fever, and more. The reason for such consistency lies within the map ping between patterns of the retina and  the columnar organisation of the primary visual cortex. Concentric circles from the retina are mapped into parallel lines in the visual cortex, with spirals, tunnels, lattices and cobwebs mapping onto lines in different directions. Inhibition is the cause of lines of activation in the visual cortex, and hallucinogenic drugs, lack of oxygen, certain diseases all affect inhibitory cells causing an excess of activity that can spread. In result, such consistent hallucinations occur similar to that of the four forms (Blackmore, 2010). However, there are also complex visual hallucinations in which the individual suffering from CBS/schizophrenia could see more concrete images such as monsters. In conclusion, research into hallucinations has provided a better understanding of the nature of conscious perception. Hallucinations have provided an interesting test case for theories on the mechanisms of conscious perception. In result the conscious experience without a stimulus provides a very useful case for consciousness research. Studying hallucinations is therefore extremely beneficial, as it has helped provide a window into imagery, imagination, and mental representation. References Berrios, G.E. (1990) Musical hallucinations, A historical and clinical study. BJP, 156, 188-194 Blackmore, S. (2010). Consciousness. An Introduction (2nd edition). Hodder Arnold. Hammeke, T.A. McQuillen, M.P. Cohen, B.A. (1983) Musical Hallucinations associated with acquired deafness. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 46, 570-572 McNamara, M.E. Heros, R.C. Boller, F. (1982) Visual hallucinations in blindness: The Charles bonnet syndrome. International Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 13-15 Menon, G.J. Rahman, I. Menon, S.J. Dutton, G.N. (2003) Complex Visual Hallucinations in the Visually Impaired: The Charles Bonnet Syndrome. Survey of Ophthalmology, 48, 58-72 Miller, T.C. Crosby, T.W. (1979) Musical hallucinations in a deaf elderly patient. Annals of Neurology, 5, 301-302 Raghuram, R. Keshavan, M.D. Channabasavanna, S.M. (1980). Musical Hallucinations in a deaf middle-aged patient. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 41, 357. Santhouse, A.M. Howard, R.J. Ffytche, D.H. (2000). Visual hallucinatory syndromes and the visual brain. Brain, 123, 2055-2064 Slade, P. (1976) Hallucinations. Psychological Medicine, 6, 7-13

The Influence, And Views Of Netanyahu On The Middle East Peace Plan :: essays research papers

The Influence, and Views of Netanyahu On The Middle East Peace Plan The middle east has many problems trying to achieve peace between Israel and the Palestinians. The peace process started about four years ago with the Middle East countries. Through the process many people have had major influence on it. One person who might have one of the greatest influences of the peace agreement is Israeli Prime Minster Benjamin Netanyahu. The peace agreement is the biggest topic in the Middle East and he is at the head of one end. At the other end is another strong figure. The leader of the PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) is Yasir Arafat. In this report I will explain Benjamin Netanyahu's position in Israel and how he has affected the peace plan. I will tell about his views on what is going on. Benjamin Netanyahu lived in the United States for a few years. Netanyahu was a graduate of M.I.T. in 1975. Then he claimed duel citizenship with the United States and Israel. Netanyahu did so because his mother was born in the United States. He was a well-paid analyst with the Boston Consulting group. He left working there and went back to Israel in 1978. When he went back to Israel, he was there for about six years when he became the embassador to the united states for Israel. Later when he was an Israeli diplomat he renounced his American citizenship. In 1996 he became the Prime Minister of Israel. He now has the most influence from the Israeli side of things. Benjamin Netanyahu has done many interviews and addresses with the American people. One such interview he did to express his views was with Time Magazine. Time asked him if he were a Palestinian, how he would regard toward Netanyahu? He replies, "If I read the controlled Palestinian media, I would think that, as they call me, I am worse than Hitler."(Beyer, 1996, p.38) They then asked him if a Palestinian could see you for what you really are what they would see. He replied to that by saying, "I think they would regard me as a person who believes deeply in the necessity of peace and that we don't have an anther partner other than the Palestinian Authority. I think that any Palestinian mother reading this should understand that I am as deeply conscious of her pain of losing her child as I am of a Jewish mothers."(Beyer, 1996, p.38) Netanyahu goes on telling Time that he does not hate the man Arafat, but the two represent different perspectives and interests.

Key Concepts of Creativity and Innovation Worksheet

Key Concepts of Creativity and Innovation  Worksheet University of Phoenix Sara Garski October 10, 2011 Key Concepts of Creativity and Innovation Worksheet |Concept |Application of concept in scenario |Citation of concept |Personal experience in your | |(Identify at least five concepts)| |in reading |organization | | |Best Snacks has been one of the leading companies |Jones, G. (2004). |In my organization the employees| |Exploitation |in their industry for several years. The company |Organizational |are always learning. Within my | | |has become |Theory, Design, and |team we are | | |complacent which has caused them to barely hold |Change. Upper Saddle|Encouraged to come up with new | | |the number two position. In order to remain and |River, New Jersey: |ways that will make the team and| | |gain back that competitive advantage, Best Snacks |Prentice-Hall. the company better as a whole. | | |must look at new ways of doing various activities | |One of my teammates | | |within the company. Exploitation is defined as, | |Came up with an idea | | |organizational | |To add to one of our | | |members learning of ways to refine and improve | |Current systems. After | | |existing organizational procedures (Jones 2004. | |The idea had went | | |Pg. 376). With the new CEO, Elizabeth Fairchild, | |Through the proper | | |joining the Company, she is determined to see why | |Channels, it was | | |Best Snacks is failing after being successful for | |Implemented. Although adding a | | |many years. She plans on working with vice | |Extra component to | | |president, Sabrina McKay, to help the company come| |An existing system, took awhile,| | |up with new and innovative procedures, that will | |it was worth the wait, | | |eventually | |Because it saved the | | |place Best Snacks back in the leading position. |Company money in | | | | |The long run. | | |Best Snacks has always promoted from within in the|Davila, T. , Epstein,|A radical Innovation in My | | |past. They have decided to do something different |M. , & Shelton, R. |organization | | |by bringing in a new CEO from outside with a |(2006). Making |Back in June of 2010. The | |Radical Innovation |different background. The new CEO, Elizabeth, |Innovation Work: How|company added | | |plans to have a new cultural change |To Manage It, |A regional office in the | | |program designed to increase |measure It, And |Franklin, TN area. The reason | | |employees’ creative thinking skills (Scenario 1). |Profit From It. |for the new Office was to assist| | |Elizabeth wants to see these changes made and |Upper Saddle River, |The abundance of Customers | | |results within one year. These changes are |New Jersey: Wharton |within the Middle Tennessee | | |considered radical innovation, |School Publishing. Area. The company | | |because is setting the bar for new | |Has continuously | | |changes within the company. Normally Radical | |Growed in a small | | |Innovations are set by a company within | |Amount of time. In the TN office| | |the industry, but Elizabeth, first wants to | |we have | | |accomplish | |Been able to meet | | |these changes from | |Goals, create more | | |within, then introduce the new | |Effiecent procedures, and handle| | |changes to competitors. |operations | | | | |That other offices | | | | |Have not been able to. | | |Best Snacks maintained a |Davila, T. Epstein,|My organization | |Business Model |successful Business Modal for |M. , & Shelton, R. |Changed its Business | | |many years, which contributed |(2006). Making |Model, to better serve | |Change |to their success. With |Innovation Work: How|It customers. They | | |competition steadily increasing, Best Snacks will |To Manage It, |Designed the Model | | |have to |measure It, And |Around their new face and | | |re-introduce and |Profit From It. |slogan, â€Å"Long Term Smart. † This | | |revamp their business model in |Upper Saddle River, |Simply is ensuring that | | |order to compete in the industry. New Jersey: Wharton |Customers get the rights | | |The company has went outside it’s Normal practice |School Publishing. |products for | | |and | |Them and their families. The | | |brought in a New CEO to put a different | |modal is | | |Perspective and spin on things. The CEO plans to | |Meant for consumers | | |show results within the company in 12 months. | |To think long term | | | | |Which will benefit them more in | | | | |the | | | | |Future rather than now. | | | | | | |Products and Services are the main part of any |Davila, T. , Epstein,|My organization | | |organization. Companies have to not only |M. , & Shelton, R. |offers many different | | |make sure that they are offering |(2006). Making |products and services | |Product and Service Offerings |products and services that the |Innovation Work: How|from life insurance to | | |consumers want. Companies |To Manage It, |annuities. The | | |have to ensure they are |measure It, And |company ensures that | | |constantly creating or offering |Profit From It. they have the | | |the newest products. In most |Upper Saddle River, |products that | | |instances consumers have |New Jersey: Wharton |consumers want. | | |been conditioned to expect |School Publishing. |Our agents go through | | |product innovation to such an | |extensive training | | |extent now it is ommon for | |to be able to provide | | |people to time their purchases | |and sell individuals | | |(Davila, Epstein, & Shelton 2006 | |products that are right for | | |Pg. 35). Best Snacks have | |them. If a certain | | |not been offering many products | |product is not | | |or service to consumers over the past couple of | |performing well, the | | |years. They have lost the customer loyalty base | |company evaluates it | | |and a huge part of the market. |and decides if it is | | |The old saying goes, â€Å"If you | |the best interest to | | |don’t do it, someone else will. † | |pull the product and | | |Best Snacks, needs to apply that | |offer a different one. | |same concept to their business. | | | | |Their competition is growing | | | | |fast and taking the customers | | | | |that once was committed to Best Snacks. | | | |Best Snack’s is faced with a |Jones, G. (2004). |In my organization, | |Organizational |serious problem of lack of |Organizational |Because of industry | | |creative thinking and new |Theory, Design, and |Decisions have to be | |Decision Making |innovation. Organizational |Change. Upper Saddle|Made in a timely | | |Decision Making is defined as |River, New Jersey: |Manner depending | | |the process of responding |Prentice-Hall. |On the problem. | |to a problem by searching for | |Sometimes decisions | | |and selecting a solution or | |Are made at the | | |course of action that will create value for | |higher level, | | |organizational | |whereas other | | |stakeholders (Jones 2004. Pg. | |decisions can be | | |368). Hopefully the new plan | |made by managers | | |that Sabrina will initiate to the | |Or even employees. I Personally | | |Staff will help the company get back on track. The| |had a | | |employees | |customer upset | | |have become complacent | |because of a certain | | |because the company has done | |process that was in | | |well for many years. In order for best Snacks to | |place and because she was going | | |gain their market | |to | | |share back they will have to | |another country, | | |change. The stakeholders have | |would create a | | |become apprehensive of Best | |problem for her. I made the | | |Snacks ability to perform and | |decision to | | |stay competitive. The new | |override this | | |changes and decision, will | |process As a | | |hopefully show the stakeholders | |courtesy. Once I | | |that the company is still capable | |was finished | | |of being on top. |handling the issue, I told my | | | | |Manager | | | | |what I had | | | | |done and she was | | | | |happy that I went ahead and done| | | | |that, verses causing | | | | |the customer to | | | | |escalate the | | | | |situation Further. |

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